Mad Brew Labs

Mad Brew’s Gaming Philosophy

Posted by MadBrew on August 4, 2009 · 2 Comments 

Mad Brew Labs celebrated its 1st year of existence last Thursday. It came and went without fanfare because I was actually gearing up for a more important celebration, 5 years of marriage with my lovely wife. I was pondering about what I have and haven’t done with the blog in the last year and where I want to be a year from now.

One of the things that I realized I have yet to do is give my readers an idea about what kind of gamer I am. Sure, most of it could be gleaned from how I have presented certain topics in one of the last 141 posts here at the labs. I just think it’s a good idea to write it down and I do it more for my own benefit than anything else.

Why I Play

There are many reasons why I play roleplaying games and the following list is not exhaustive:

  • manages my imagination (because I need an outlet)
  • stimulates my creativity (wouldn’t be cool if…)
  • provides interesting experiences (I never could have elsewhere)
  • accommodates my puzzle solving fetish (which leads to character optimization)
  • gives me a break from the home life (necessary to maintain healthy marriage)
  • allows my wallet to breath (because paper is cheap and dice last a lifetime)

All of the above are wonderful reasons to play, but the number one most important reason I play is because it allows me to have fun with my friends. Roleplaying is a social engagement for me. The actual game and story take a back seat to the social event; RPGs are just a vehicle for us to get to the destination of fun.

Play Style

On a recent episode (Season 1, Episode 3) of the RPG Circus podcast, the ringmasters had Phil, the Chatty DM, as guest. He said, “The age of the tyrannical DM is dead” and attributed the death knell to the design of modern RPGs (specifically 4th Edition Dungeons & Dragons). I say the age never existed.

I’ve been playing since about ’88, and I never had a tyrannical (meaning adversarial) DM. Sure, that was 15 years after the inception of D&D, but I believe the adversarial DM, while existed, was not as common as many believe. Also, no rule system to date prevents a DM from being a dick.

That being said, I do believe Game Masters (or Dungeons Masters or referees) should have the final say in any situation. The GM does most of the work and receives that power by merit. The only entitlement players have is the right to have fun (so if the GM is not providing that, it’s time to for something to change).

Some might think that places me firmly in the classic gaming camp (they call themselves the “Old School Renaissance”), but I dig crunchy mechanics, tactical miniature play, character options, and story. Yet, I don’t feel like I am part of the “new school movement” either.

I take a sort of hybrid approach to my gaming. I reward both player AND character skill at the table. I do have story and plot running in the background of my adventures while still allowing the freedom of “sandbox” style play. There are consequences for actions (as well as non-action in the case of plot). I roll everything openly and pull no punches, so character death is a reality in my games (though I do offer options that help soften the blow). I pay attention to mechanics, yet let them take a back seat during outstanding roleplay.

As a player, I tend to do heavy optimization. Why? Well, because I like watching everything come together; traits supporting and enhancing each other. I also feel there is a skill involved in optimization, and enjoy applying that skill. It gives me something to do in the downtime between sessions and it makes for interesting backgrounds.  Yeah, I tend to write lengthy (2-3 page) histories for my characters, and everything on the character sheet has a rationale. These backgrounds in turn give me things to use during roleplaying.

I tend to believe that those who hate optimizers are either weak GMs who have not learned how to handle them or players that have weak GMs and their lack of optimization keeps their characters in the shadows. A good Game Master can give everyone a chance to shine, no matter what kind of character a player has.

Conclusion

I think I am a very middle of the road roleplayer and I don’t let any zealousness blind me to the benefits of any play style. I don’t wear my game of choice as a badge (I can play many systems, and enjoy most of them) and I try to keep from being pigeon-holed into any of the insular play style movements. I welcome any good-natured gamer at my table, no matter their preference.

Oh, and this is my own personaly philosphy and have no desire to force them upon anyone (though it would be cool for me if many people adopted them), nor do I claim my philosophy is the one true way, it just works best for me.

What I’m listening to:  White Zombie – Crow II: City of Angels OST – I’m Your Boogieman

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RPP-310: Roleplaying Promotes Wellbeing

Posted by MadBrew on April 9, 2009 · 6 Comments 

Attention: People at Play

Attention: People at Play

Roleplaying games are good for your health.  No, really.  Studies show that play is the gateway to vitality.  And rolePLAYing may be one of the most rewarding forms of play.

Earlier this year, Tony Law posted a video on RPG Centric from the TED (Technology, Entertainment, & Design) Conference.  The video features Dr. Stuart Brown from the National Institute of Play discussing how the importance of play transcends childhood (as well as species!) and continues to be vital for adults.  I urge you to visit RPG Centric and watch the video before reading further.

Basically, scientific research has found evidence that supports the theory that play is as fundamental to human development and health as is sleep, exercise (which some play could be considered), or nutrition.  It is essential:

A life or a culture devoid of or deficient in play exists as a heightened major public health risk factor. The prevalence of depression, stress related diseases, interpersonal violence, the addictions, and other health and well being problems can be linked, like a deficiency disease, to the prolonged deprivation of play. – The National Institute of Play

 Seven Patterns of Play

The Institute of Play has identified seven elemental forms, or patterns, of play.  Roleplaying games are unusual in the respect that they have the potential to incorporate all seven patterns of play, making this sometimes ridiculed activity a prime candidate for individuals seeking to balance their life with play.

Attunement

Attunement play is often a wordless understanding, attunement, between people that can be marked by shared smiles and the sense that two or more people are connected at a subconscious level.  It is usually initiated by eye contact.  Perhaps the best example of attunement is when a mother and baby make eye contact and the baby smiles and makes a noise which then in turn prompts the mother to vocalize.  Studies using an EEG show that the right sides of the participants’ brains become attuned.

This base level of play is achieved during a roleplaying game through eye contact and laughter.  The sudden outbursts of excitement when a player makes a particularly good roll (or the moans & groans at a bad roll) is a form of attunement that enhances the shared experience of the play.

Body & Movement

Exploring how our bodies move is a way of knowing and learning about our environment and our selves.  A simple hop can convey the idea of gravity.  “Innovation, flexibility, adaptability, resilience have their roots in movement.” (National Institute of Play)

Live Action Role Play [LARP] obviously have this ground covered, especially if the gameplay includes physical simulation of combat.  However, even the exercise of exploring your vocal range to provide unique voices to characters and non-player characters constitutes body play.

Object

Science has established a direct correlation between the manipulation of objects and adult problem solving.  The correlation is so strong that companies like Boeing practically require potential engineers to not only have an advanced degree but also experience with fixing/building things by hand such as cars and model airplanes.

Most roleplaying games require dice to simulate the element of chance or the unknown into play.  The throwing (and often just playing with) of dice is a form of object play.  Another common feature of roleplaying games is miniatures and terrain.  Manipulating miniatures around the artificial scenery definitely constitutes object play.  An argument could even be made that tweaking a character sheet could also be considered object play.

Social

Humans are social creatures by nature and there is an instinctual desire to belong.  There are researchers who believe that further study into the science of social play and its influence on the sense of community could lead to breakthroughs on the prevention of violence.

This is an obvious component of roleplaying games, because you cannot have one (per my definition) without more than one person.  The social aspect of roleplaying games is without a doubt the primary motivation for many gamers who participate in the ritual.  In fact, there is a very strong sense of community among avid roleplayers that transcends national, racial, and cultural boundaries.

Imaginative

The ability of a person to pretend and create their own sense in their mind is key to innovation and creativity.  Studies have shown that this type of play is critical in the development of coping skills and trust.

The entire concept of roleplay hinges on imagination.  Players imagine the actions the scenes and actions of their characters.  The entire world the game takes place in is imaginary, even if it is a reflection of the real thing.

Storytelling-Narrative

“Storytelling, the way most kids love to learn, is, when under the play microscope, identified as the unit of human intelligibility.” (National Institute of Play)  Storytelling is a vicarious method of learning, helping individuals to understand others and through them, ourselves.

A by-product, or in some instances, the goal of roleplaying games is a narrative of events that revolve around the actions of player characters.  It allows players to experience hypothetical events and explore possibilities that are either impossible, too dangerous, or taboo in reality.

Transformative-Integrative & Creative

“We can access fantasy-play to transcend the reality of our ordinary lives, and in the process germinate new ideas, and shape and re-shape them. Given enriched circumstances, and access to novelty, our play drive takes us into these realms spontaneously. Whether like Einstein imaginatively riding pleasurably on a sunbeam at the speed of light, or a light-hearted group of IDEO corporation designers wildly imagining a new product, each is using their playfulness to innovate and create.” (National Institute of Play)  This form of play allows us to use the things we have learned through other patterns of play to create.

Through roleplaying games, participants create a shared experience.  Their characters become living, breathing alter egos that evolve and grow over the course of several games.  Roleplaying games often compel their participants to write stories, develop homebrew mechanics and worlds, and dabble in the arts.  Skills developed at the table can truly transcend their purpose in the game.

Future Revelations

Scientific study that researches the benefits of play is good for everyone, not just children or gamers.  Hopefully it will result in discoveries that can improve life and further our knowledge of how people develop and the impact it has on behavior and health.

Legitimate Academic Subject

Hard scientific evidence in the field of play will help legitimize the subject in academia.  Even with the giant strides made in research today, I believe that play is not taken as serious as it should be.  It is vital to our health and the faster it becomes accepted as a valid subject the better its chances are at obtaining the necessary grant money to continue its research.

Fearless Roleplaying

If it can ever be imprinted on the minds of people that play is important, then perhaps it will help remove the stigma that is still present in the area of roleplaying.  No doubt there will always remain the contingent of closed minded individuals and groups that will forever condemn the activity, but hopefully it will shrink so far as to no longer have an impact on gamers.

Be sure to read previous articles in my Roleplaying Philosophy (RPP) series.

Selected References

Below is a list of selected reference for further research and reading.

Allen, Bekoff, M. (1994). Intentionality, Social Play, and Definition.

Bekoff, M. (1978). Social Play, Structure, Function and the evolution of a cooperative social behavior. In: the development of behavior: Comparative and evolutionary aspects.

Forencich, Frank. (2001). Play as if Your Life Depended Upon It.

Gross, J.J., Mauss, I.B., Levenson, R.W., Wilhelm, F. H. (2005). The Tie That Binds? Coherence among Emotion, Experience, Behavior and Physiology. Emotion Vol. 2, 175-90

Leslie, A.M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of theory of mind.  Psychological Review, 94, 412-426.

Schore, A.N. (2000). The self-organization of the right brain and the neurobiology of emotional development.  Emotion, Development, and Self-Organization, (pp. 155-185).

Sheets- Johnstone, Maxine. (1999). The Primacy of Movement. Johns-Benjamin Vol. 14, Advances in Consciousness Research.

Singer, Jerome L. (1973). Child’s World of Make-Believe: Experimental Studies of Imaginative Play.

Singer, J. L., Switzer, E. (1980). Mind Play: The Creative Uses of Fantasy.

Stevens, V. (2006). Transparency to Transformation.

Sutton-Smith, Brian. (1997). The Ambiguity of Play.

Wilson, Frank. (1999). The Hand: How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture.

Winnicott, D. W. (1999). Playing and Reality.

Listening to: Corrosion of Conformity - Wiseblood – Drowning in a Daydream

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10 Reasons to Play Games at the Table

Posted by MadBrew on April 7, 2009 · 11 Comments 

Entertainment is one of the highest grossing industries of today, is probably the United States’ biggest export, and comes in a plethora of forms.  Why would someone choose to invest time, energy, and money into a roleplaying game (or a board game) when there are so many other, more popular modes of entertainment?  Well here is my list of reasons why:

  • 10. Art: How can you avoid not picking up a roleplaying game when it has that stunning illustration on the cover?
  • 9. Dice: Can you really resist rolling all those interesting polyhedrons?
  • 8. Cleanliness: Roleplaying games give you a reason to clear off that kitchen table you haven’t used recently.
  • 7. Support: Participation in the roleplaying game hobby helps maintain a niche industry that could always benefit from more attention.
  • 6. Intelligence: Oh yeah, most roleplaying games force you to think and apply logic, so you might just get smarter.
  • 5. Stress Relief: Roleplaying games definitely allow for some healthy escapism, allowing you to relax and unwind.
  • 4. Creativity: Roleplaying games usually take place in distant realms or alternate realities which teaches you to think outside the box.
  • 3. Party: We are social creatures by nature and roleplaying games require social interaction and give us an excuse to visit with friends.
  • 2. Replay Value: Every time you sit down and play a roleplaying game it will be different, even if you play the same adventure.
  • 1. Price Point: A roleplaying game only requires a minimal initial investment of money, which can be cheaper than a movie & popcorn at the theatre.

Everyone says the economy is a bad thing (and it mostly is), but I think it is an excellent opportunity to “get back to basics” with family and friends.  Roleplaying games can be brilliant resources that can help families reconnect at the table and save money.  Of course, I cannot be responsible for any addiction one may acquire after playing a game (and therefore causing you to spend obscene amounts of money of supplements).

Listening to: Disarmonia Mundi – Fragments Of D-Generation – Red Clouds

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RPP-000: RPG Theory Bibliography

Posted by MadBrew on February 27, 2009 · 9 Comments 

There has been a recent surge of interest in the study of Roleplaying Games as an academic subject.  I have also seen quite a few questions arise that are rooted in defining quintessential elements of Roleplaying Games.  For the faithful zealots that follow the Labs (are there any?), it is well established that I have a great interest in the theory behind my beloved hobby.

This entry in the Roleplaying Philosophy series is a bibliography of sources I have come across during my research.  I do not claim to agree with any of the mentioned resources, nor do I even vouch that they have well constructed arguments or accurate observations.  However, for the seriously interested, I recommend reading as much prior study as possible.  To know where we are going we should probably know where we have been.

New Blood: The IJRP

One of the recent publications that have graced several blogs of note is the International Journal of Role-Playing, which was released on December 30th of 2008.  The IJRP is definitely distinguishing itself by offering collegiate level essays.  The aim and scope as defined by the IJRP follows:

The aim of The International Journal of Role-Playing is to act as a hybrid knowledge network, and bring together the varied interests in role-playing and the associated knowledge networks, e.g. academic research, the games and creative industries, the arts and the strong role-playing communities.

Edwardian Theory

Another journal style approach can be seen with Push: New Thinking about Roleplaying.  I was hesitant to even read it at first because it looked like it was heavily influenced by Ron Edwards‘ GNS model.  Still, it provides some food for thought and is probably one of the better things to be spawned from that cesspool.

And there are also the Oracle Essays from RPG.net.  These are the surviving copies of some of the original essays written on the subject that appeared in now defunct magazines.  You can find a handful of articles written by Robin Laws, Greg Costikyan, and Chris Pramas there.

Then of course, there is the infamous The Forge.  Though not a publication, and currently closed to new threads and comments, the archive of the RPG Theory, GNS Model, and Game Design forums are still there to read.  These forums are strongly influenced by Ron Edward’s System Does Matter, Gamist-Narrativist-Simulationist, and Big Model theories.

Nordic Meeting Points

The annual Knutepunkt conference, first held in 1997, is the bastion of Scandinavian (Nordic) Live Action Roleplay.  Event hosting alternates between the nations of Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Denmark.  Every year since 2003 (along with a booklet in 2001) Knutepunkt/Solmukohta releases a collection of essays presented at the convention.

2003: As LARP Grows Up
2004: Beyond Role & Play
2005: Dissecting LARP
2006: Role, Play, Art
2007: Lifelike
2008: Playground Worlds

The Scandinavian stuff is focused primarily on LARP (which is far difference from American style LARPs), but I think many of the ideas can be applied at the table where theatrics and roleplay are concerned.  If you would like to read more on LARP, I suggest looking through the Journal of Interactive Drama and these university papers: LARP Environments as Information Systems and MIT’s Tensions in LARP.

Spinning Theory on the Web

Though it is found in the lonely corners of the web, there is much RPG Theory that exist right here on the internet, sneaking around in hypertext.  Of course, there are my articles right here at the Labs on Roleplaying Philosophy.  Brian Gleichman from Whitehall ParaIndustries, while a new-comer to the blogosphere, is an old hat in the realm of RPG Theory and has many excellent posts on the subject.

Wikipedia has a short entry on RPG Theory, too bad it doesn’t link to full treatises on the theories it mentions.  Perhaps the final resting place of the Threefold Theory and much of the early, flame ridden, debates about theory is the Google Group for Rec.Games.FRP.Advocacy.  There are probably a few gems of theory in there if you can stomach searching through all the junk.

There are a few websites that collect some of the homeless theory out there.  John Kim’s website has various collections of older material and links to offsite resources (though many are now broken).  RPGStudies.net has an excellent bibliography of publications, dissertations, essays, and case studies for research.

Interdisciplinary Papers

With various overlapping genres, there is no doubt that theory will apply across different categories.  GameStudies.org, a computer game research journal, published a paper on pen & paper RPGs and rules while this essay looks at connecting ritual acts with roleplaying.  The Daedalus Project has nice collection of works focusing on the psychology of MMORPGs.  The Questing GM even looked at how RPGs could be an academic study, and it is interesting to see how RPGs can actually require a strong foundation in the liberal arts.

Moldy Tomes

There are a number of books that explore heavier subjects surrounding RPGs, and it would take a month of proper researching to find any worth looking at, but I am going to present the few I have encountered, sans description.  A warning, many of these books focus on video games, but I think we can still take a lot from their approach and even from what they have to say:

Future Research

I think my future research will include a trip to the alma mater to look through the university’s database of journals and periodicals.  But until I can set aside some time to sit in the library, Google has a new search engine called Google Scholar that might be of use.  Sometime in the near future I want to compile this into a downloadable document that just lists the links and names of the resources.

If you have some interesting theory floating around on your blog or know some that I missed, please place it in a comment!

Listening to: Dethklok – The Dethalbum – Bloodtrocuted

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RPP-101: Defining Roleplaying Games

Posted by MadBrew on January 15, 2009 · 10 Comments 

Polyhedral Dice (c) Dave Ward

Polyhedral Dice (c) Dave Ward

In the previous article of the Roleplaying Philosophy series, we defined what a game was and was not.  This time we will identify and define the elements that constitute a roleplaying game [RPG].  The execution of this process should result in a suitable definition for what roleplaying games are [1].

Elements of RPGs

They are Games

A roleplaying game is, as the name states, a type of game.  This means that a roleplaying game must meet the requirements of the definition of game.  As such, a roleplaying game is a dynamic form of play, structured by rules, where players participate to overcome opposition in order to achieve a goal.

However, some theories suggest games must have a victory condition and that RPGs do not meet the criteria for games because of their lack of a victory condition (Salen & Zimmerman, 2003; Kinsman, 2006).  But, I have already defined game with more relaxed criteria.

I also disagree with the criteria that roleplaying games cannot have victory conditions.  I think “defeating the big bad evil guy and averting certain doom” qualifies as a victory condition and is a mainstay of roleplaying adventure/campaign tropes.  Perhaps a better delineation would be that roleplaying games can have an infinite number of goals while other games have a finite number of goals.  I think that another difference is that non-roleplaying games have clearly defined losing conditions.

There is the faction that claims RPGs are not games because games are by their nature competitive (Kinsman, 2006) while roleplaying games are cooperative.  I contend that roleplaying games are still competitive even if you are not competing directly against living players.  You compete against non-player characters, monsters, traps, and the environment within the virtual world of the game.  It is also possible to compete, or struggle against other players in roleplaying games.  The exercises of political intrigue and social backstabbing that are prevalent with White Wolf’s Vampire games have shown us that.

Some theorists propose that roleplaying games, or roleplaying can never be contained within the boundaries of definition because the genre is too fluid and tends to break any current definition when designers push the envelope on creativity (Walton, 2006).  I think it may be a little pretentious to think that a concept can escape a definitive description.  Humanity has been defining the universe since prehistory, and I think given our current knowledge, defining what a roleplaying game is should be within our grasp.

Needless to say, much of the controversy surrounding the question of whether roleplaying games exist within the set of games is because of what the proponents of alternate theories believe the definition of a game is.  I have provided a fitting definition for game in the previous article; under which, roleplaying games can clearly exist.

Players Assume Roles of Sentience

The crux of the matter when trying to delineate roleplaying games from other forms of games is to define what a role is.  Is choosing the yellow token in Clue and naming it Colonel Mustard a role?  I am of the opinion that it is not, at least within the limitations implied by the rules of Clue.

I propose that a key feature of a role, within the context of an RPG, is the ability for that role to develop.  This means that within a roleplaying game there are resources (i.e. stats, equipment, finances, etc.) connected to the role that are dynamic and change over time.  A role must also be sentient, something with the capability to make decisions.

Some theories (McLimore, 1997) state that roleplaying games must be described in narrative and are not acted out physically.  I dispute this definition because acting should actually allow a player to better assume the role, which is the essence of a roleplaying game.  I believe the one of the main motivations behind roleplaying is to explore an alternative reality through the assumption of roles.  This can be done through narrative or by physical action.

Human Moderated Improvisation

McLimore also proposes that all roleplaying game must have a referee, otherwise known as the gamemaster [GM], to mediate conflicts.  I would argue that human moderation is required for a roleplaying game, yet the title of referee could be shared among the players.  A game that distributes the role of GM among the players could resolve conflicts by group consensus.  The implication of the need for human moderation means that a roleplaying game must have more than one player.

Within a roleplaying game a character, controlled by a player, has the freedom to take any action that the character could take if the given situation were real (Rilstone, 1994).  The player chooses which actions he will take based upon characterization.  In other words, the actions are taken because it is what the character would do and the successes of these actions are determined by the limitations of the character as determined by the rules and the virtual environment.

This is perhaps why many theories determine that there is a need for a dedicated referee, or GM.  Human moderation is indeed required, because there are not any conventional rules that accounts for every action that could be taken or make allowance for all the modifiers to said action.  Even if there are “catch all” mechanics designed to resolve any unknowns, human moderation is needed to verify if the action is even plausible.

Live Action vs. Table Top

I see Live Action Roleplaying [LARP] games as a subset of roleplaying games.  In LARP games, the player physically acts out what his character does, much like an actor in a play, except in LARP it is unscripted.  Actions that are beyond the abilities of living humans or actions that could be potentially harmful (such as casting spells, discharging firearms, or swordplay) are often narrated instead of being fully acted out.  LARPs still possess all the characteristics of roleplaying games.

Table Top roleplaying games are verbally narrated roleplaying games.  While facial expressions and hand gestures are common, most if not all of the action takes place in the players’ imaginations.  RPGs of this category are also referred to as Pen & Paper roleplaying games to distinguish them from video game RPGs, though neither pen and paper or table tops are actually required for play.

About Wargames

Roleplaying games were born from pushing the envelope of the wargaming hobby.  As such, wargames share many characteristics of roleplaying games and much of the terminology has carried over.  We still use the words campaign and combat round in many systems today.

While wargamers take on the roles of generals and commanders during play, wargames are not roleplaying games because they do not contain free improvisation and they have a finite amount of goals (capture objective, eliminate all enemy units, neutralize enemy command, etc.).  Even so, it does not take much to turn a wargame into a roleplaying game.

About Computer Roleplaying Games

Computer roleplaying games [CRPGs], also known as video game RPGs, of the single player variety do not allow for the freedom of improvisation or the true assumption of roles.  Therefore, CRPGs are not actually roleplaying games, but games that attempt to simulate the experience.  CRPGs use the same settings and mechanics as true roleplaying games but lack the true interaction necessary in the games they simulate.

This being said, once a network of additional living players are added to a CRPG, there is potential for true roleplaying.  This evident in the text-based multi-user dungeons (MUDs) that still exist today, but were very popular in the mid to late 90s.  Massive multiplayer online [MMO] games, the descendents of MUDs, also have the potential for true roleplaying as well, and the interactivity (along with the presentation) of these games is one reason why they are so dominant today.

Mad Brew’s Definition of Roleplaying Games

After critically analyzing the elements that comprise a roleplaying game, I am confident to put forth a strong definition of what a roleplaying game is.  Just like with my definition of game, I do not claim that my definition is perfect, and a rational discourse could convince me to change it.

A roleplaying game is a dynamic form of play, structured by rules with human moderation, where players assume and develop virtual roles of sentience and overcome opposition by freely improvising character actions in order to achieve a possibly infinite number of goals.

A less wordy definition that assumes one already knows the Mad Brew definition of Games is: An RPG is a game where players assume and develop virtual roles that freely improvise within the confines of character and human moderation.

The next chapter in the Roleplaying Philosophy series will give a brief history of roleplaying games including an overview of the first RPG and how roleplaying has evolved until its current state.

Roleplaying Philosophy Series:

Bibliography

Kinsman, B. (2006).  System and Theory.  Retrieved January 12, 2009, from
                http://unclebear.com/?p=1765

McLimore, G. (1997).  What is a Role Playing Game?.  Retrieved January 10, 2009, from
                http://www.rpg.net/oracle/essays/whatisrpg.html

Rilstone, A.  (1994). Role-Playing Games: An Overview.  Retrieved January 13, 2009, from
                http://www.rpg.net/oracle/essays/rpgoverview.html

Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2003).  Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals.  Cambridge, MA:
                MIT Press.

Walton, J. (Ed.). (2006). Push: New Thinking about Roleplaying, Volume 1.  Retrieved January 10, 2009,
                from http://plays-well.com/

[1] Image retrieved from Dave Ward’s Flickr page.
Listening to: Spinnerette – Ghetto Love – Ghetto Love

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